Pregnancy

Overview

Pregnancy is the term used to describe the period in which a fetus develops inside a woman’s womb (uterus).

Related Terms: Gestation, prenatal period

Preparing for Pregnancy

Before becoming pregnant, women can take the following steps to promote a healthy pregnancy:

• Contact a healthcare provider to discuss reproductive goals
• Increase their daily intake of folic acid (one of the B vitamins) to at least 400 micrograms
• Make sure their immunizations are up to date
• Control diabetes and other medical conditions
• Avoid smoking, drinking alcohol, and using drugs
• Attain a healthy weight
• Learn about their family health history and that of their partner
• Seek help for depression, anxiety, or other mental health issues

Signs of Pregnancy

The primary sign of pregnancy is missing a menstrual period, but many women experience other symptoms before they miss a period. Missing a period does not always mean a woman is pregnant. Menstrual irregularities can have a variety of causes, including taking birth control pills, conditions such as diabetes and polycystic ovary syndrome, eating disorders, and certain medicines.

Pregnancy symptoms vary from woman to woman — a woman may experience every common symptom, just a few, or none. Some signs of early pregnancy include:

• Slight bleeding: Bleeding or spotting that is lighter in color than normal menstrual blood, typically about 6 to 12 days after conception but common in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy.
• Tender, swollen breasts or nipples: Hormonal changes can make the breasts sore or tingly and feel fuller or heavier. Women may notice this symptom as early as 1 to 2 weeks after conception.
• Fatigue: Many women feel more tired early in pregnancy because their bodies are producing more of hormones and pumping more blood to carry nutrients to the fetus.
• Headaches: The sudden rise of hormones may trigger headaches early in pregnancy.
• Nausea and/or vomiting: Commonly referred to as “morning sickness,” this symptom can occur at any time during the day. It can start anywhere from 2 to 8 weeks after conception and can continue throughout pregnancy.
• Food cravings or aversions: Sudden cravings or developing a dislike of favorite foods are both common throughout pregnancy and can last the entire pregnancy or vary throughout this period.
• Mood swings: Hormonal changes during pregnancy often cause sharp mood swings. Mood swings can occur as early as a few weeks after conception.
• Frequent urination: The need to empty the bladder more often is common throughout pregnancy.

Many of these symptoms can also be signs of other conditions, the result of changing birth control pills, or effects of stress. They do not always mean that a woman is pregnant. Women should see their healthcare provider if they suspect they are pregnant.

Home Pregnancy Tests

Home pregnancy tests measure the amount of human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) in a woman’s urine. HCG is a hormone produced by the cells that will form the placenta after implantation. Small amounts of this hormone are present even before the first missed period. If a home pregnancy test is positive, a woman should call her healthcare provider to schedule an appointment.

Pregnancy Timeline

Pregnancy usually lasts about 40 weeks, or just over 9 months, as measured from the last menstrual period to delivery. Healthcare providers refer to three segments of pregnancy, called trimesters.

First Trimester (Week 1 to Week 12)

The events that lead to pregnancy begin with conception, in which a sperm penetrates an egg, combining genetic material to form a single cell. At this stage, the fertilized egg is called a zygote. Over the next few days, the zygote will divide into multiple cells while it travels through the woman’s fallopian tube and will eventually implant in the uterine wall where it will continue to grow. This cluster of cells is called an embryo up until the eighth week of pregnancy, and during this stage of development major organs and body structures form. From around the ninth week of development up until birth, it is called a fetus, and during this time the organs continue to develop and function.

After the embryo implants into the uterus, some of the dividing cells will form the placenta, a temporary organ that is attached to the uterus and connects the developing fetus to the mother through the umbilical cord. The placenta provides nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to the fetus, and removes waste products from the baby’s blood.

Screening using ultrasound and blood tests can be performed during the first trimester to detect chromosomal disorders or congenital anomalies, as well as determine the sex of fetus or if multiple fetuses are present.

Most pregnancy losses occur before eight weeks. Pregnancy that ends before 20 weeks is called miscarriage. Miscarriage usually happens because of genetic problems in the fetus. Sometimes, problems with the uterus or cervix might play a role in miscarriage.

Second Trimester (Week 13 to Week 28)

The second trimester is a period of rapid growth and development. Systems continue to develop and function, external sex organs show, muscle tissue and bone continue to form, and the lungs are formed, though they do not yet work.

• Between 17 and 20 weeks, a woman may begin to feel movement.
• At 24 weeks, footprints and fingerprints have formed. The fetus sleeps and wakes regularly and movement is stronger.
• According to research, the survival rate for babies born at 28 weeks was 92%, although those born at this time will likely experience serious health complications.
• After 20 weeks, losing a pregnancy is called stillbirth. Stillbirth is much less common. Some reasons that stillbirth occur include problems with placenta, genetic problems in the fetus, poor fetal growth, and infections. Almost half of the time, the reason for stillbirth is not known.

Third Trimester (Week 29 to Week 40)

• At 32 weeks, the bones are soft but almost fully formed. The eyes can open and close. Kicks and jabs are forceful. The fetus also experiences rapid weight gain and body fat increases. As the fetus grows there is less space to move around.
• Infants born before 37 weeks are considered “preterm.” These children are at increased risk for problems such as developmental delays, vision and hearing problems, and cerebral palsy.
• Infants born in the 37th and 38th weeks of pregnancy are considered “early term.” These infants face more health risks than infants who are born at 39 weeks or later.
• Infants born at 39 or 40 weeks of pregnancy are considered “full term.” Full-term infants have better health outcomes than do infants born earlier or, in some cases, later than this period.
• Infants born at 41 weeks through 41 weeks and 6 days are considered “late term.”
• Infants who are born at 42 weeks and beyond are considered “post term.” Infants born “post term” can be at increased risk of being stillborn.

Healthy Pregnancy Tips

Having a healthy pregnancy is one of the best ways to promote a healthy birth. Women who suspect they may be pregnant should schedule a visit to their healthcare provider to begin prenatal care. Pregnant women can get regular prenatal care and take certain lifestyle steps to increase their chances for a healthy pregnancy.

Prenatal Care and Screenings

Prenatal care is the healthcare a woman gets during pregnancy. Early and regular prenatal visits with a healthcare provider are important for the health of both the mother and the fetus.

If there aren’t increased risks associated with your pregnancy, your healthcare provider will set up a regular schedule for visits that might look like this:

The first prenatal visit will probably be scheduled sometime after the eighth week of pregnancy. Most healthcare providers won’t schedule a visit any earlier unless a woman has a medical condition, has had problems with a pregnancy in the past, or has symptoms such as spotting or bleeding, stomach pain, or severe nausea and vomiting.

Prenatal visits to a healthcare provider usually include a physical exam, weight checks, and providing a urine sample. Depending on the stage of pregnancy and the woman’s health history, healthcare providers may also do other tests.

Some tests are screening tests, and others are diagnostic tests. Screening tests do not diagnose problems. They evaluate risk. A screening test result that comes back abnormal does not mean there is a problem with the infant. It means that more information is needed. A healthcare provider can explain what the test results mean and possible next steps.

The types of tests a woman may have during pregnancy include:

Routine Tests

• Urine test: At each prenatal visit, a urine sample is tested for signs of diabetes, urinary tract infections, and preeclampsia.
• Ultrasound exam: An ultrasound exam is typically performed between 18 and 20 weeks of pregnancy to check for any problems with the developing fetus.
• Glucose challenge screening: Usually given between 24 and 28 weeks of pregnancy, this screening assesses risk for gestational diabetes.
• Group B streptococcus (GBS) infection screening: This test is performed between 35 and 37 weeks of pregnancy to look for bacteria that can cause pneumonia or other serious infections in the infant.

Screening for Chromosomal and Neural Tube Defects and Other Conditions

• First trimester screen: A blood test to provide information about the risk of Down syndrome and other chromosomal problems.
• Cell-free fetal DNA: A blood test to look for increased amounts of material from chromosomes 21, 18, and 13. It can be given as early as 10 weeks to women at higher risk for having a child with a chromosome disorder. The test is not recommended for women who are at low risk or are carrying multiple fetuses.
• Chorionic villus sampling (CVS): If the fetus is at risk for genetic disorders, this test may be recommended between 10 and 13 weeks of pregnancy. A needle is inserted through the cervix or the abdomen to remove a small sample of cells from the placenta.
• Nuchal translucency screening: This test uses ultrasound to measure the thickness of the back of the fetus’s neck. The test occurs between 11 and 14 weeks to help determine the fetus’s potential risk for chromosomal abnormalities and other problems.
• Maternal serum screen (also called quad screen, triple test, triple screen, multiple marker screen, or AFP): A blood test to determine the risk of the fetus having chromosomal abnormalities and neural tube defects (NTDs). This screening test is done between 15 and 20 weeks of pregnancy.
• Carrier screening for cystic fibrosis (CF): A blood or saliva test determines if a woman and her partner are carriers for this genetic disease.

Additional Testing a Healthcare Provider May Recommend

• Amniocentesis: Given between 15 and 20 weeks of pregnancy, this test may be used to diagnose chromosomal disorders such as Down syndrome and the infant’s risk for neural tube defects such as spina bifida.
• Glucose tolerance test: If the glucose challenge screening is above a certain level, this follow-up test may be ordered.
• Non-stress test: Performed in the third trimester (28 weeks or later), this test monitors the fetus’s health by measuring the fetal heart rate while the fetus is at rest and while moving or kicking.
• Biophysical profile (BPP): This test is given in the third trimester to determine fetal well-being. It monitors the fetus’s breathing, movement, muscle tone, and heart rate as well as the amount of amniotic fluid.

During the first prenatal visit, blood tests are also performed to determine blood type and Rh factor, do a blood count, test for hepatitis B, HIV, rubella, and syphilis, and offer genetic testing. All pregnant women should be screened for syphilis during their first prenatal visit, and women considered to be high risk should be screened again in the third trimester.

Daily Life During Pregnancy

During pregnancy, women can take several steps to promote their health and the health of the fetus:

• Follow a safe and healthy diet: ACOG recommends that pregnant women who were of normal weight before pregnancy increase their food intake by about 300 calories per day. Choosing a variety of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, and low-fat dairy products helps ensure the developing fetus gets all the nutrients it needs. Pregnant women should avoid certain foods such as raw fish, undercooked meat, deli meat, and unpasteurized cheeses. According to the FDA, pregnant women can eat up to 12 ounces a week of fish and shellfish that have low levels of methylmercury but should avoid fish with high levels of methylmercury such as swordfish, king mackerel, and shark.
• Limit caffeine: Women should talk to their healthcare provider about the amount of caffeine they get from coffee, tea, or soda. Their healthcare provider might suggest a limit of 200 milligrams (the amount in about one 12-ounce cup of coffee) per day.
• Exercise: Most women can continue regular levels of physical activity throughout pregnancy. Regular physical activity can help a pregnant woman feel better, sleep better, and prepare for birth.
• Maintain a healthy weight: Gaining too much or too little weight during pregnancy increases the risk of problems for both the mother and the infant. Women whose weight was in the healthy range before becoming pregnant should gain between 25 and 35 pounds while pregnant.
• Get enough folic acid: Taking 400 micrograms of folic acid daily reduces the risk for neural tube defects by 70%. Most prenatal vitamins contain the recommended 400 micrograms of folic acid.
• Avoid exposure to potentially harmful substances: During pregnancy, exposure to radiation, pesticides, lead, and certain chemicals can cause birth defects, premature birth, and miscarriage.
• Talk to a healthcare provider about medicines and supplements: Most medicines have not been specifically studied for use in pregnancy. Certain medicines and supplements can harm the fetus. Pregnant women should talk to a healthcare provider about over the counter and prescription medicines and herbal and vitamin supplements.
• Prevent infections: Certain infections can affect pregnancy or the developing fetus. It’s important to take steps to prevent such infections or get medical treatment before or during pregnancy. Vaccinations can protect against many infections that can affect the mother’s health, the pregnancy, the fetus, and even her newborn child. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) provides additional information on infections during pregnancy.
• Avoid tobacco, alcohol, and drugs: Drinking alcohol, smoking, and taking drugs during pregnancy can increase a child’s risk for problems such as fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, sudden infant death syndrome, and other problems.
• Reduce Stress: It is normal to feel some stress during pregnancy. Too much stress can cause trouble sleeping, headaches, loss of appetite, or a tendency to overeat—all of which can be harmful to the woman and developing baby. Women should talk about stress with their healthcare provider and loved ones. Together, they should identify the source of stress and take steps to remove it or lessen it.
• Get mental health support: Some women experience extreme sadness or anxiety during pregnancy and after giving birth. Women should talk to their healthcare provider if they feel overwhelmed, sad, or anxious. Treatment and counseling can help.

Health Problems That Can Occur During Pregnancy

Some women experience health problems during pregnancy that can involve the mother’s health, the fetus’s health, or both. Even women who were healthy before getting pregnant can experience complications.

High blood pressure (hypertension) occurs when arteries carrying blood from the heart to the body organs are narrowed. This causes pressure to increase. In pregnancy, this can make it hard for blood to reach the placenta. Reduced blood flow can slow the growth of the fetus and place the mother at greater risk of preterm labor and preeclampsia. High blood pressure that develops in pregnancy (called gestational hypertension) typically occurs during the second half of pregnancy and goes away after delivery.

Gestational diabetes occurs when a woman who did not have diabetes before pregnancy develops the condition during pregnancy. In gestational diabetes, hormonal changes from pregnancy cause the body to either not make enough insulin or not use it normally. It causes glucose to build up in the blood. If not controlled, it can lead to preeclampsia. Gestational diabetes can also lead to having a large infant, which increases the risk for cesarean delivery. Treatment includes controlling blood sugar levels through a healthy diet and exercise, and through medicine if blood sugar values remain high.

Preeclampsia is a serious medical condition that can lead to preterm delivery and death. It causes high blood pressure, swelling of the hands and face, abdominal pain, blurred vision, dizziness, and headaches. In some cases, seizures can occur — this is called eclampsia. The only definite cure for preeclampsia and eclampsia is to deliver the baby.

Severe nausea and vomiting (hyperemesis gravidarum) is a more severe form of morning sickness. Women experience nausea that does not go away, weight loss, reduced appetite, dehydration, and feeling faint. Medicine may be prescribed to help with nausea. Women with hyperemesis gravidarum may need to be hospitalized so that they can receive fluids and nutrients. Often, the condition lessens by the 20th week of pregnancy.

Iron-deficiency anemia is somewhat common during pregnancy and is associated with preterm birth and low birth weight. Symptoms include feeling tired or faint, experiencing shortness of breath, and becoming pale. The American Congress of Obstetricians and Gynecologists (ACOG) recommends 27 milligrams of iron daily (found in most prenatal vitamins) to reduce the risk for iron-deficiency anemia. Some women may need extra iron through iron supplements.

Depression and anxiety can be health effects related to pregnancy. There is no single cause of depression or anxiety during and after pregnancy, but hormonal changes, stress, family history, and changes in brain chemistry or structure may all play a role. Depression and anxiety are treatable medical conditions. Women should talk to their healthcare provider if they feel overwhelmed, sad, or anxious.

Placenta previa occurs when the placenta covers part of the opening of the cervix inside the uterus. It can cause painless bleeding during the second and third trimesters. The healthcare provider may recommend bed rest. Hospitalization may be required if bleeding is heavy or if it continues. Placental problems may affect how the baby is delivered.

Placental abruption occurs when the placenta separates from the inner uterine wall. It can be mild, moderate, or severe. If severe, the fetus cannot get the oxygen and nutrients needed to survive. Placental abruption can cause bleeding, cramping, or uterine tenderness. Treatment depends on the severity of the abruption and how far along the pregnancy is. Severe cases may require early delivery.

High Risk Pregnancy

A high-risk pregnancy is one in which the mother, her fetus, or both are at higher risk for health problems during pregnancy or labor.

High-risk pregnancy is not always preventable. Some factors, such as chronic conditions and lifestyle factors, can be treated and controlled to help reduce risk. But some conditions aren’t treatable or, even if well controlled, still mean higher than normal risk. Other problems may start in pregnancy.

Women whose pregnancies are considered high risk may need specialized care or treatment to have healthy pregnancies and deliveries. The specific type of care needed will depend on the specific risk factors, as well as the overall health of the mother and the fetus.

Just because a pregnancy is considered high risk does not mean that a problem will occur.

Several factors can make a pregnancy high risk.

Biological Factors Related to Existing Health Conditions

• High blood pressure: Uncontrolled high blood pressure can damage the mother’s kidneys. It can increase the risk for low birth weight or preeclampsia.
• Diabetes: During the first few weeks of pregnancy, often before a woman even knows she is pregnant, high blood sugar levels can cause congenital anomalies.
• Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), also known as polyendocrine metabolic ovarian syndrome: Women with PCOS have higher rates of pregnancy loss before 20 weeks, gestational diabetes, preeclampsia, and cesarean section.
• Kidney disease: Kidney disease can cause difficulties getting and staying pregnant as well as preterm delivery, low birth weight, and preeclampsia.
• Autoimmune disease: Conditions such as lupus and multiple sclerosis can increase a woman’s risk for problems during pregnancy and delivery. For example, women with lupus are at increased risk for preterm birth and stillbirth.
• Thyroid disease: Uncontrolled thyroid disease can cause problems for the fetus, such as heart failure, poor weight gain, and brain development problems.
• HIV/AIDS: HIV medicines should be started as soon as possible and/or continued throughout pregnancy to maintain good health, prevent perinatal transmission of HIV, and prevent HIV transmission to sexual partners. Most HIV medicines are safe to use during pregnancy and do not increase the risk of birth defects.
• Obesity: Having obesity before pregnancy is associated with increased risk for high blood pressure, preeclampsia, gestational diabetes, stillbirth, neural tube defects, and cesarean delivery.
• Infections, including some sexually transmitted infections (STIs), may occur during pregnancy and/or delivery and may lead to complications for the pregnant woman, the pregnancy, and the baby after delivery. Many infections can be prevented or treated with appropriate care.

Lifestyle Factors

• Alcohol use: Drinking alcohol during pregnancy can increase the baby’s risk for fetal alcohol spectrum disorders, sudden infant death syndrome, and other problems. Currently, research shows that there is no safe amount of alcohol to drink while pregnant.
• Tobacco use: Smoking during pregnancy puts the fetus at risk for preterm birth, certain congenital anomalies, and sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS). Secondhand smoke also puts a woman and her developing fetus at increased risk for health problems.
• Drug use: Research shows that smoking marijuana and taking drugs during pregnancy can also harm the fetus and affect infant health.

Age-related Risk Factors

• Young age: Pregnant teens are more likely to develop pregnancy-related high blood pressure and anemia and to go through preterm labor and delivery than older women.
• First-time pregnancy after age 35:  Most older first-time mothers have normal pregnancies, but research shows that older women are at higher risk for gestational hypertension and diabetes, pregnancy loss, ectopic pregnancy, delivery complications, and genetic disorders such as Down syndrome in the baby.

Pregnancy-Specific Risk Factors

• Multiple gestation: Pregnancy with twins, triplets, or more fetuses increases the risk of infants being born prematurely.
• Previous preterm birth: Women who went into labor or had their baby early with a previous pregnancy are at higher risk for preterm labor and birth with their current pregnancy.
• History of gestational diabetes in previous pregnancies: Gestational diabetes can cause problems for both mother and fetus, including preterm labor and delivery, and high blood pressure. It also increases the risk that a woman and her baby will develop type 2 diabetes later in life. Many women with gestational diabetes have healthy pregnancies because they work with a healthcare provider to manage their condition.
• History of preeclampsia and eclampsia in previous pregnancies
• History of congenital anomalies or genetic conditions in previous pregnancies

Pregnancy Loss

Pregnancy loss is the unexpected loss of a fetus before the 20th week of pregnancy. It is sometimes called miscarriage.

Some losses occur before a healthcare provider or pregnancy test confirms a woman’s pregnancy.

Some symptoms of pregnancy loss include:

• Bleeding from the vagina
• Pain or cramps in the lower stomach area
• Low back pain
• Fluid, tissue, or clot-like material coming out of the vagina

Bleeding from the vagina during pregnancy doesn’t always mean a miscarriage. Many pregnant women have spotting and cramping in early pregnancy but do not miscarry.

Pregnant women who have any of these symptoms should contact their healthcare provider immediately.

Some women do not experience any symptoms of pregnancy loss.

Pregnancy loss often happens when a pregnancy doesn’t develop normally. Possible causes of pregnancy loss include:

• Problems with the chromosomes in the fetus
• Exposure to toxins in the environment
• Problems with the placenta, cervix, or uterus
• Problems with the father’s sperm

In many cases, though, healthcare providers can’t identify a cause or causes for pregnancy loss.

Risk factors for pregnancy loss include:

• Older age at time of pregnancy
• Previous miscarriages
• Chronic diseases, such as high blood pressure, diabetes, thyroid disease, or polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS)
• Problems with the immune system, such as an autoimmune disorder
• Infections (such as untreated gonorrhea or Zika)
• Hormone problems
• Extremes in weight, such as obesity or being too thin
• Lifestyle factors, such as using drugs or alcohol, smoking, or consuming more than 200 milligrams of caffeine per day

There is currently no known way to prevent pregnancy loss before 20 weeks from occurring. There is no way to stop pregnancy loss once it has started.

Stillbirth

Stillbirth is the loss of pregnancy after the 20th week.

Despite some known risk factors, most U.S. stillbirths occur in pregnant women who don’t have any risk factors.

In many stillbirths, the cause remains unknown even after extensive testing. However, researchers have identified several possible causes of or contributors to stillbirth:

• Pregnancy and labor complications
• Problems with the placenta
• Fetal genetic problems and congenital anomalies
• Infection
• Problems with the umbilical cord
• High blood pressure disorders
• Medical problems in the pregnant woman

Some stillbirths may be preventable, but most are not.

Experiencing a stillbirth can be devastating for a pregnant woman and her family. Getting support from providers, counselors, friends, and family is important for the healing process.

Find Clinical Trials

Clinical trials uncover better ways to prevent, diagnose, treat, and understand diseases and conditions. To ensure results apply to everyone, volunteers of all ages, sexes, and backgrounds, including both healthy individuals and those with specific medical conditions, are needed. Find clinical trials on pregnancy.

Find Treatment

• A directory of pediatricians is available through the American Academy of Pediatrics.
• Find a genetic counselor through the National Society of Genetic Counselors.
• The Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA) offers a services locator.
• NIH offers a NIAAA Alcohol Treatment Navigator to locate and identify high quality alcohol treatment.

Community Support

• The Maternal and Child Health Bureau offers the National Maternal Mental Health Hotline to help new mothers address the range of sometimes overwhelming emotions that can occur after their baby is born. The hotline provides free and confidential access to trained counselors and resources 24 hours a day, 7 days a week in English, Spanish, and more than 60 other languages.
• Smokefree Women provides advice, tips, and support to help women quit smoking, including expecting mothers.
• Rethinking Drinking provides resources and information related to quitting alcohol use.
• SAMHSA confidential hotline
• National Lead Information Center

Note: This resource list is for informational purposes only. It is not comprehensive, and an organization’s inclusion does not constitute an endorsement by NIH. 

Research Information

The National Institutes of Health (NIH) is the largest public funder of biomedical research in the world. NIH invests most of its budget in medical research seeking to enhance life and to reduce illness and disability. NIH-funded research has led to breakthroughs and new treatments helping people live longer, healthier lives, and building the research foundation that drives discovery.

Some of the goals for research supported by the NIH related to pregnancy include studies to:

• Understand the biology of pregnancy at a molecular level
• Help define an optimal pregnancy
• Improve knowledge about and treatment of premature labor and preterm birth
• Evaluate environmental effects on the developing fetus
• Understand appropriate use of medicine in pregnancy

NIH supports many research networks and initiatives that aim to advance healthcare for women during pregnancy.

In 2014, NIH launched the Human Placenta Project (HPP) to address gaps in understanding of the placenta and develop tools to study its structure and function in real time.

The Maternal-Fetal Medicine Units (MFMU) Network was established to support well-designed clinical trials in maternal-fetal medicine and obstetrics. The network aims to reduce maternal, fetal, and infant morbidity related to preterm birth, fetal growth abnormalities, and maternal complications and to provide the rationale for evidence-based, cost-effective obstetric practice.

NIH led a federal collaboration called Task Force on Research Specific to Pregnant Women and Lactating Women (PRGLAC), which was established to advise the HHS secretary regarding gaps in knowledge and research on safe and effective therapies for pregnant women and lactating women. In 2023 an implementation working group published a progress report on how the task force’s recommendations are being put into action.

The Maternal Health Research Centers of Excellence is a national network of research centers across the United States to develop, implement, and evaluate community-tailored interventions to identify risk factors and mechanisms for maternal morbidity and mortality. It is part of the Implementing a Maternal health and PRegnancy Outcomes Vision for Everyone (IMPROVE) Initiative, which was launched in 2019 to support research to reduce preventable causes of maternal deaths and improve health for women before, during, and after pregnancy.

The Stillbirth Research Consortium supports stillbirth-relevant basic, translational, clinical, and/or data sciences research across the United States, with a particular emphasis on ways to decrease the incidence of stillbirth in vulnerable populations. Research includes investigating relationships between nutrition, chronic stress, cardiometabolic health, and placental dysfunction to identify interventions to reduce stillbirth, as well as projects including education and bereavement/mental health.

Find NIH-funded research projects using NIH RePORTER, a searchable database of current and past research projects supported by NIH and other federal agencies.